Criswell Theological Review 6.2 (1993) 207-222
[Copyright © 1993 by
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Gordon and
ISAIAH'S CALL AND ITS CONTEXT
IN ISAIAH 1-6
PAUL R. HOUSE
Commentators
have offered a variety of opinions on Isaiah's call
within its
context in Isaiah 1-6. Part of this diversity stems from the
call's
placement. Unlike his fellow prophets Jeremiah and Ezekiel,
whose call
experiences open their books, Isaiah's initial command to
preach
seems to come in chapter 6. This difference has led to specula-
tion on the authorship, date, compilation,
setting, and purpose of the
whole
section. Though these issues cannot be solved beyond question,
it is
necessary to examine them to analyze Isaiah's call effectively.
Therefore,
this article will explore Isaiah's call in its context by not-
ing the section's genre, historical setting,
structure, biblical context,
placement,
contents, and theology. This discussion will conclude that
Isaiah 6
functions as a linking passage between the book's presenta-
tion of the difficulty of the prophet's
message in chapters 1-5 and the
difficulty of
the prophet's ministry in chapters 7-12. It will thereby
demonstrate the
strenuous nature of Isaiah's life and work.
Isaiah 1-6 and Prophetic Literature
Isaiah begins the latter prophets segment of the Hebrew canon.
As the
opening prophecy, it sets the tone for the rest of the books.
Themes,
images, and personae that appear here emerge again and
again in
Isaiah, Jeremiah, Ezekiel, and the Twelve. The importance
of this
observation lies in its ability to help explain the logic of the
placement of
Isaiah 6.
The prophetic genre uses both narrative and poetry to proclaim
its message.1
Thus, what separates prophecy from the law and the
1 Of
course, scholars are currently debating the nature of Hebrew poetry and its
existence.
This article uses the terms in their traditional sense. However one defines
Hebrew
poetry, it is evident that Isaiah 1-5 and Isaiah 36-39 utilize different
syntactical
208 CRISWELL THEOLOGICAL REVIEW
writings is
its content, not its mode of composition. B. D. Napier ar-
gues that five basic themes distinguish
prophetic literature: (1) Word
and
symbol, (2) election and covenant, (3) rebellion and judgment, (4)
compassion and
redemption, and (5) consummation.2
R. Clements basically agrees with Napier. He thinks canonical
(written) prophecy stresses the inspiration of the prophet's
words and
the
destruction and restoration of
phasis was attached" to restoration, and
that
assumes a
variety of forms in the prophets.3 Napier and Clements offer
a
balanced view of prophetic themes, in contrast to commentators who
tend to
over-emphasize the prophets' concern with sin and doom.4
Isaiah 1-6
constantly claims to present God's own words. Twice
the
passage says that Isaiah received these messages as "visions" from
the Lord
(1:1; 2:1). God is quoted repeatedly (1:2-3, 24-26; 5:1-2; etc.).
Chapter 6
presents an episode where Isaiah speaks with God face to
face.
Claims for direct inspiration permeate these chapters and the
whole
prophecy as well.
Yahweh and the prophet denounce sin in great detail in chapters
1-6. These denunciations set the stage for later calls to
repentance
and
offers of consolation. Often, the Lord announces the nation's
wickedness
(e.g., 1:2-3), and then Isaiah explains the implications
of
Yahweh's comments for
prophet
introduces God's condemnations (e.g.,
edness becomes so evident by 6:5 that Isaiah
admits, "I am a man of
unclean
lips, and I live among a people of unclean lips."
Because of this sin, God will punish
not
recognize their master (1:2-3), so Yahweh will purge the rebel-
styles and
that Isaiah 6 combines both styles. Cf. Robert Lowth,
Lectures on the Sacred
Poetry of
the Hebrews (original
1753; reprinted
The Idea of
Biblical Poetry (New
Haven: Yale, 1981); Robert Alter, The Art of
Biblical
Poetry (New York: Basic Books, 1985); and Mona
West, "Looking for the Poem: Reflec-
tions on the Current and Future Status of
Biblical Hebrew Poetry Analysis," Beyond
Form
Criticism: Essays in Old Testament Literary Criticism (ed. Paul R. House;
2 B.
D. Napier, Song of the Vineyard: A Guide Through
the Old Testament (Phila-
delphia: Fortress, 1982) 250.
3
Ronald Clements, "Pattems in the Prophetic
Canon," Canon and Authority: Es-
says in
Old Testament Religion and Theology (ed. G, W. Coats and B, Long; Philadel-
phia: Fortress, 1977) 45.
4 Many
early critical scholars tend to argue that the prophets preached judgment,
and that
any mention of hope must be an addition to the text. Cf. Ivan Engnell's survey
and
refutation of this tendency in The Call
of Isaiah: An Exegetical and Comparative
Study (Uppsala/Leipzig: A-B. Lundequistska/Otto
Harrassowitz, 1949) 20-23.
5 Note
John D. W
in Isaiah
1-33 (WBC 24; Waco, TX: Word, 1985) 1-77.
Paul House:
ISAIAH'S CALLAND ITS CONTEXT IN ISAIAH 1-6 209
lious nation of all His foes (
day of
Yahweh, a time of reckoning (
among
ile will be the most obvious sign that the
"day" has come (
remnant of
righteous persons will remain in the land after the judg-
ment ceases (6:9-13).
God punishes to effect redemption. After the devastation, all na-
tions will worship Yahweh together in
protection in
harshest
punishment (
ment, they do not neglect restoration
altogether. Renewal remains
Yahweh's ultimate purpose.
Clearly, Isaiah 1-6 introduces the basic themes of the prophetic
genre.
Isaiah will participate in the main traditions of prophetic
preaching.
Since condemnation and calls for repentance are so prom-
inent, his audience may not appreciate his
message. His ministry may
not
prove easy or popular.
Historical Setting of Isaiah 1-6
Some scholars attempt to date chapters 1-5 fairly specifically.
For
instance,
Hayes and
it
describes the Syro-Ephraimite crisis. At this time
invade
16:7-9). Since chapter 6 is dated about seven years earlier, Hayes
and
740, or, in
other words, a few years before Uzziah's death.6 In their
scheme,
Isaiah 1-6 comes from Isaiah's early ministry, when
wickedness has
yet to place them in political danger. Chapters 7-12,
then, are
sermons delivered during and after the 733 crisis that inau-
gurates a new, politically conscious phase of
Isaiah's ministry.7
Other commentators are more cautious. For instance, J. Oswalt
thinks
chapters 1-5 are broad introductory messages that have no
"more direct relationship with chaps. 7-12 than they do with
any
other
segment of the book."8 Thus, they can only be dated sometime
during
Isaiah's career. R. Clements says that chapter 1 is an introduc-
tory collection of texts from various periods
of Isaiah's ministry. Most
6 John
H. Hayes and Stuart Irvine, Isaiah the Eighth-Century Prophet: His Times
and His
Preaching (Nashville:
Abingdon, 1987) 52-53.
7 Ibid. Note, too, their discussion of chaps. 7-12 (113-220).
8 John
Oswalt, The Book
of Isaiah, chapters 1-39 (NICOT;
mans,
1986) 173.
210 CRISWELL THEOLOGICAL REVIEW
of
chapters 2-6 originates during 733-725, since these passages are
similar in
content to Isaiah 7-9, though messages of hope like 2:1-5,
4:2-6, and
6:12-13 are post-exilic additions.9 E. J. Young essentially
agrees with
Oswalt's assessment of the section, and though they
date
more
oracles after 587 than Clements, Kaiser and Gray also think
much of
chapters 1-6 comes from eighth-century Isaiah.10 Other au-
thors could be cited, but the point has been
made. These writers con-
clude that Isaiah 1-5 arises from a variety of
eighth-century settings
and
introduces the book in some way. All agree that Isaiah 6 occurs
by 740.
The prophecy itself offers no exact life setting for chapters 1-5.
Two
inscriptions appear, but they merely state that Isaiah delivers
these
messages sometime "during the reigns of Uzziah, Jotham, Ahaz,
and
Hezekiah" (1:1) and that they consist of comments "concerning
Uzziah's
death" (6:1), but this reference reveals little. It sets a date for
the call
experience without divulging how Uzziah's death
affects
Isaiah. The
book's internal evidence can be interpreted in a number
of
ways, as the survey of scholarly opinions noted above indicates.
Therefore,
chapters 1-5 can only be dated sometime during the
reigns of
the kings listed in 1:1, or between 783-687.11 Again, chapter
6 takes
place near 740. Isaiah's ministry spans from at least 740, and
concludes no
sooner than 701, when Sennacherib invades
Isaiah 36-37).
Because chapter 6 mentions Uzziah's
death, it is possible to
suggest a
general historical situation for Isaiah 1-6. Uzziah
rules ef-
fectively from ca. 783-742.12 He helps
military
success at a time when Jeroboam II (ca. 786-746) enjoys an
even
greater reign in Samaria.13 Despite these prosperous times, Yah-
weh is not pleased with the people. Hosea and
Amos, who minister
during the
earlier decades of Uzziah and Jeroboam's era, charge
the
people and
their rulers with a variety of individual and societal sins.
By the time Uzziah dies, the people are ripe for judgment.
9
Ronald Clements, Isaiah 1-39 (NCB; Grand Rapids: Eerdmans,
1980) 2-8.
10 Cf.
E. J. Young, The Book of Isaiah: Vol. 1,
chapters 1-18 (
mans,
1965) 233; Otto Kaiser, Isaiah 1-12 (Philadelphia: Westminster, 1972)
1-7; 23, 53,
73; G. B.
Gray, A Critical and Exegetical Commentary
on the Book of Isaiah 1-27 (ICC;
thors' opinion on specific texts at this point
in the article. What matters is their agree-
ment about the general date and purpose of
chaps. 1-6.
11 John
Bright, A History of
308.
12 Ibid., 254-55.
13 Ibid.
Paul House:
ISAIAH'S CALL AND ITS CONTEXT IN ISAIAH 1-6 211
will soon
threaten the region and will eventually destroy
a new
prophet, Isaiah should have even less hope for
ate
future than his predecessors.
Structure of Isaiah 1-6
A passage's structure unites its various themes, images, ideas,
characters,
plots, points of view, and time sequences. It is the glue
that
holds artistic pieces together. E. V. Roberts states:
Structure is a matter of the relationship among parts that are
usually de-
scribed in terms of cause and effect, position in
time, association, symme-
try, and balance and proportion. . . . Literary artists universally
aim at a
unified impression in their works, and because
literature is a time art. . . ,
the study of structure attempts to demonstrate that the idea and the
re-
sulting arrangements of parts produces a total
impression.14
Because of
its ambiguous historical background, this section's struc-
ture is particularly important to grasp. If
the chapters are introductory
in
nature, then their progression of thought becomes extremely vital.
Certain "seams" exist in these chapters. First, both
chapters 1 and
2 have
inscriptions which separate them into two distinct segments.
Second,
chapters 2-4 form a unit, since 2:1-4 describes
ous future, 2:5-4:1 warns of coming judgment,
and 4:2-6 returns to the
restoration
theme. Third, 5:1- 7 is a song about
against God.
Fourth, 5:8-30 consists of woes against
a
dated, narrative account. Sixth, 7:1 presents a totally different setting
from
chapter 6. Except for 5:1- 7 and 5:8-30, each seam also marks a
thematic
transition.
Linguistic parallels help link these sections. L. Liebreich notes
that variations
on fmw (sm') ("hear") and wdq (qds) ("holy") occur
throughout the
chapters.
and
1:10.15 The Torah is the object of the "hearing" in
blames
rejection of the Torah for
ther, 1:4 and
Yahweh as
the thrice-holy one.17
14 Edgar V. Roberts, Writing Themes About Literature (3d ed.;
NJ: Prentice-Hall, 1973) 119.
15
(1954) 37.
16 Ibid., 38.
17 Ibid., 39.
212 CRISWELL THEOLOGICAL REVIEW
Thematic
progression is evident as well. Chapter 1 utilizes sev-
eral common prophetic rhetorical devices, each
intended to shame the
people into
repentance.18 Yahweh exposes
comparing them
unfavorably to an ox and an ass (1:2-3). Next, God
asks the
people why they are determined to perish (1:4-9). The land
has been
devastated, so why do they remain stubborn? Why not
"wash" themselves of this sin (
bring
blessings (
(
Chapter 2 uses a new inscription to break from chapter 1, but it
continues the
sin, punishment, and restoration sequence. P. R. Ackroyd
places
2:1-5 with chapter 1, thus creating two segments that begin
with
condemnation and conclude with hope (1:2-2:5 and 2:6-4:6).19
Though this
ordering is possible, it fails to accept the separate in-
scriptions as clear divisions and does not recognize
another viable
structural
option. If 1:1-31, 2:1-4:6, and 5:1-30 are distinct units, then
1:1-31 and
5:1-30 begin and end with oracles of doom. Conversely,
2:1-4:6
begins and ends with words of hope. This rhetorical strategy
allows
either as a
message of doom or hope. Unfortunately, they reject threats
and
promises equally. No wonder Isaiah despairs over the nation's un-
cleanness in
6:5.
God
gives
sion rejected, Yahweh declares
people
(2:6-11). God will therefore set a "day of reckoning" (
move
idols (
zens (
bed in
2:1-4 by suffering the devastation promised in
Chapter 5
begins with a parable (5:1-7), moves to a series of woes
(5:8-23),
and ends with predictions of exile (
"song" (5:1), denounces the way
pression and murder (5:7). Since
"Woe"
awaits all who rape the land (5:8), live for wine
(5:9), pervert God's
word (
4:2-6;
5:1-2), so a purging disaster has become inevitable (
The first five chapters have done more than introduce the book's
contents20 or simply stress the message over the messenger.21
After
18
17 (1964) 468.
19 P. R Ackroyd,
"Isaiah 1-12: Presentation of a Prophet," VT Sup 29 (1978) 43.
20 Cf. Oswalt, Isaiah
1-39, 173.
21 Cf. Young, Isaiah 1-18, 234 and
Geoffrey W. Grogan (EBC 6; ed. F: Gaebelein;